What is the Meaning and Characteristics of Primate City?

The Law of the Primate city was pronounced by Mark Jefferson (1939). According to him if a city in a country disproportionally larger than any other cities as like London is 7 times greater than Liverpool and Mexico City 5 times greater than Guadalahara based on his observation law stated that “A countries leading city is always disproportionately large and exceptionally expressive of national capacity and felling.”
 

The Primate City is larger than any other city in the urban system and dominates all other cities not only in population size but also in its role as political, economic and social center of the country.
John and Turner

“The city which is more popular and dominant both economically and politically over rest of the cities in a particular country”

Law of Primate City
Factors that related to the Primate City

1. Agriculture Economy.
2. Export oriented trade.
3. Rapidly growing population.
4. Having colonial History.

Characteristics of Primate City

1. International familiarity for a political sub-division. 
2. Actively participate in international events. 
3. Having a fairly large population. 
4. Having a major international airport.
5. Advanced transportation system.
6. International culture and community. 
7. International financial institution.
8. A lively cultural seen. 
9. Having powerful media.
10. Storing sporting community.
11. Sports of international pilgrim.

Factors affecting Primate City

1. Small size of the county.
2. Colonial History.
3. Export orientation of the country.
4. Simple economy and political organization.
5. Duel economy.
6. Degree or level of primacy.

Remedies to Casteism

The following are some proposition about the solution of the problems arising out of casteism:

1. Proper Education: Proper education is the only way to solve the problem of casteism. Educational institution creates a space in which distinction of caste are not encourage. At the same time the children faces bad impact of this problem. Casteism can be destroyed only by the development of new psychological tendencies and behavioral patterns through increase of education.
2. Inter-caste Marriage:  Inter-caste marriage helps to decrease casteism. It also helps to the families to develop relation among there caste. In this way, the seed of casteism shall be unable to take root and even if it does, the resulting sapling will be so weak that it will subsequently be wiped out.
3. Lesser use of the Word Caste: One way of solving the problem of casteism is to make less frequent use of the word ‘caste’ so that there may be no traces of it left in the minds of the impressionable children and they should not be imbued with the idea of caste distinction. In this way, at least it will become possible to destroy the notion of casteism in the coming generations.
4. Cultural and Economic Equality: Another way of facing the problem of casteism is to introduce cultural and economic equality of the various castes. Discrimination in cultural and economic sector increase casteism.  Hence, the restoration of cultural and economic equality among various castes is an important step towards the abolition of casteism from the society.

Consequences of Casteism

On the one hand, casteism severs to further the interests of a small number of individuals but, on the other hand, it is risky for the nation. The most important consequences of casteism are given below:

1. Hindrance in the Development of Nationalism: Casteism hinders the growth and development of nationalism. On the one hand, casteism has divided Indian society into many parts while on the other hand, much tension and conflicts between these various parts have been created on the basis of casteism.
2. Hindrance of Democracy: Many of the professional leaders in the political field exploit casteism and at election time ask the people to vote for them on communal considerations. As a result the dishonest or corrupted people come into power and they do not consider the common interest of the people. 
3. Corruption: People inspired by the sense of casteism try to provide all kinds of facilities to people who belong to their own castes and in doing so they resort to all kinds of immoral and improper activities. In this way, extreme corruption in the society is increasing.
4. Hindrance in Technological Efficiency: Because the appointment to government and private services is done on the basis of caste, there seems to be a continuing increase in the number of inefficient and worthless people. On the other hand, the efficient and able individuals do not get the opportunity to find employment. Thus, a great obstacle is placed in the path of the nation’s industrial and technological advance.

Forms of Rural Aesthetic Culture

The relationship between the content and the form of art is organic one. It is comprised of the unity of its form and content, the content determining the form. 

The Indian rural aesthetic culture includes various regional rural cultures reflects different shades of style,  patterns and modes. To point out as example, we have such varied forms as Sorathas, Dohas, Chaupais, and Chhappas, Kirtans, Bhajans, Abhhngas, Pavadas, Deshies, Horis, Kajaris, Kawalis and others in the domain of poetry and song; Rasas, Garbas and others in the sphere of dance; and Bhaviais, Ramlilas, Tamasas and other in the field of dramas. Similarly the words of other rural arts also reveal a rich diversity of forms. The study of different forms of the art cultures of different regional rural communities will help us to distinguish them as distinct culture units. Further, since the agrarian life possesses certain common characteristics, though with local and regional variations, such a study will also reveal how basically the same life content has been variously handled in the sphere of art by different communities.”

There exist a substantial amount a specialization in the agrarian arts particularly cause the art is mixed with concrete activities like “sowing, reaping, harvesting and others or with such articles of utility as ornaments and earthen ware’. There is a thematic continuity, in art creations and the arts dealing with them are enriched from generation to generation. There exists ‘continuous improvements of agrarian arts, their forms, styles and patterns”.

The rural people in Indian have a ‘long and rich history of aesthetic culture’. History is full of description of the concerts and dramas of the rural life during the Maurya period and have been, as A.S.Altekar states, described as “Preksha,” by Chanakya and “Samaja” by Ashoka. 

Method of Rural Change

Alongside the study of the foregoing factors which bring about change in the rural community it is also necessary to know the factors by means of which social organization or political parties create change in the rural community. The description of these will also make evident as to which method should be employed in bringing about the desired change in the rural community in developing the rural welfare work. Sims and other prominent sociologists have enumerated the following among these kinds of methods.

1. The Method of Reasoning: Some people have confidence in reasoning with the village people in an effort to bring about some change in the rural community. This method does have some benefit but its major defect is that the people who make use of it do not themselves do anything actively and thus their words not carry enough weight.
2. Demonstrative Method: Thus, more importance is attached to the demonstrative method than to the method of reasoning, for it sets examples to the villagers. For example, advocacy about the utility of any agricultural implement cannot be as beneficial as making use of it in some farms. As a result of viewing its functions the farmers will themselves take interest in it and adopt it.
3. Compulsory Method: As is obvious from its name this method resorts to enforcing the change compulsorily upon the rural population. In other words, the population is obliged to accept the desired change, and it is obvious that only the government can employ this method. The states have made quite extensive use of it. For example, many states in Indian have forced the villagers to behave gently towards untouchability make it to be a crime. The advantage of this method is that the changes are effected quickly but it suffers from the drawback that it cannot create internal change. Internal change can be brought about only by the reasoning and demonstrative method.
4. Social Pressure Method: Social organizations and institutions makes most use of the method of social pressure in controlling or transforming the conduct of the individuals. As is obvious from its name, this method obliges the individual by exerting social pressure upon him. For example, the caste panchayat of the villages obliges the members of the caste to accept their decision by threatening social excommunication or extradition. This method certainly does prove quite effective due to men’s sociability but it too suffers from an inability to achieve internal transformation. The first two methods are more appropriate for an internal change.
5. Contact Method: It is a common fact that changes in men occur through contract. A person adopts many mannerisms from the people with whom he come into contact and among whom he comes into contact with urban communities. Change in the mode of living dress, customs and values is seen when the tribal villagers come into contact with Hindu and Christian culture, when the uncivilized people come into contact with the civilized people and when the villagers come into contact with Western culture.
6. Education Method: Education is an extremely important factor in the development of the personality of the individual. It is very essential to pay attention to the proper education of the child besides watching his inherited tendencies according to the aim for which the child or the parent is striving for. The same fact is more or less true with regard to communities as well. In Indian efforts are being made to introduce change in the villages through basic education and social education etc. and much success is also apparently villagers it is necessary to impart proper education.

There are limitations to each of these methods for creating change in the rural communities and thus any method alone cannot serve the purpose. For this reason need is often felt for using more than one method. In order to achieve the desired changes in the direction of rural development reasoning needs to be supplemented by demonstration. Where some people are not prepared to take the trouble of understanding it, it is proper to introduce the compulsory and social pressure methods. In every change, education complementary to it should be impaired. In this way the desired changes in the rural community can be attained only by understanding all these method and making use of them according to need and occasion.

Merits of Caste System

Caste system has been termed as fountain head of social evil in our society. Despite the criticism, it still continues in the Indian society and many favor it. Its advocates point out certain merits whereas its critics cite many demerits. These are being pointedly discussed below:

Merits of Caste System

1. Fixed Social Environment: It has been emphasized that caste system provides a fixed social environment to each individual. In the words of Hutton, “He is provided in this way with a permanent body of association which controls almost all his behavior and contacts. His caste channelizes his choice in marriage acts as his trade union, his friendly or beneficent society, his state club, and his orphanage, it take the place for him of health, insurance, and if need be provided for his funeral.”
2. Sense of Co-operation: Caste system promotes the spirit of co-operation and fellow feeling among members of the same caste.
3. Defines Occupation: Caste system tells the economic pursuit of the individual. There is an occupation pertaining to every caste so that the child’s future is not only carved out already but also a proper place of apprenticeship is provided. Ancient India was a land provided with generations of craftsmen and soil cultivators who were extremely skillful in their vocation. In one way it helped in the specialization of skill.
4. Racial Purity: The supporters of caste system emphatically state that this system has held in preserving racial purity of the higher castes by forbidding indiscriminate inter-caste marriage, and has greatly fostered the habits of cleanliness by insisting on ritual purity.
5. Impresses upon the Intellectual Make-up: Caste system has been able to influence the intellectual make-up of an individual. Since the caste dictates to each member customs to be observed in the manner of diet, the observance of ceremonies and whether he many marry a widow, his view on the social and political matters and bound to be influenced by his caste customs.
6. Integration of the Country: The advocates of this system argue that caste system, ‘develops class consciousness without breeding class struggle. It has created an efficient organization of Hindu society without giving any chance to class frictions and factions. It has the best device to organize with one society, people of different castes with different cultural levels. It prevented the country from splitting up into warring racial units. It is argued that the ‘caste system has integrated Indian society into one caste and variegated community and provided the county with a sure basis of security and continuity whereby a stable and orderly organization of society could be possible.
7. Defines Functions: The caste system, it is stated, provides for the various functions necessary to social life- “Functions ranging from education to scavenging, from government to domestic service of the most menial kind, and it makes this provision under the sanction of a religious dogma, the belief in Karma, which renders the superficiality inequitable distribution of functions, acceptable as being part of the divine order of the universe.”
8. Cultural Diffusion: One of the merits of caste system has been its ability to promote the cultural diffusion within the group. The caste customs, beliefs, skill, behavior, the trade secrets are passed on from generation to generation.
9. Segmentation of social Life from Political Life: It is said that caste system has been able to maintain its own religious system by providing the worship of the caste Gods and Goddesses. It has made the social life independent from the political influence. S.C.Hill says, “His intimate life, the life which to the Hindu really matters is altogether independent of the political conditions, which happen to prevail.”

Explain the Recent Changes in the Caste System in Our Country

Caste system has been prevalent in our society since the advent of Aryans. Initially it got patronage and was fluid but as the time picked up it became concrete and ultimately devoured the whole society.

The course leading to origin and the development of caste system can be conveniently analyzed under following heads:

1. The Vedic Period: Caste system was fluid state in this period because of the stratification of the society on the basis of varnas. The latter did not accept birth as the criteria for the classification and occupation were the main basis of social differentiation. Therefore, change from one varna to another was not possible. Restrictions regarding marriage, food and drink were almost non-existent. In fact there was not stratification of high or low groups in society. In Rig-Veda mention has been made about the three classes of society. They are named as Brahmin, Kshatriya and Vaishya. The texts do not make any reference to the castes being classified on the basis of birth.
2. Post Vedic Period: Texts of this period suggest the classification of society into four varnas. There is a reference about a group belonging to our caste class. During this period the old distinction between Arya and Das appears to be modified into Dwija and shudras. Gradually, the varnas became closed groups and a clear hierarchy evolved between various varnas with Brahmins at the top and Shudra at the bottom. This period also witnessed the establishing of the theory of supremacy of action over birth. This period also witnessed the establishing of the theory of supremacy of action over birth. This concept of action (Karma) was supported by Buddhism and Jainism, both. But after the downfall of Buddhism as a state power, Brahmins tried to re-establish their social supremacy by forming strict rules regarding caste structure and by making the caste as a watertight closed group. This period also witnessed the prohibition of inner castes marriages, and appearance of the practice of untouchability.
3. Poranic Period: This period put the Brahmins at the helm of affairs. It became the principal duty of other castes to serve them. Division of occupations also became very strict. Restrictions upon inter caste marriages became more rigid. Social status of Shudra sank to its lowest depth and they were regarded as sub-human. This period brought the feeling of contempt and hatred in the caste system.
4. Mediaeval Era: This period began with the invasion of Muslim and their subsequent dominance. History reveals that ‘Muslim rulers tried to convert Hindus into Muslims and imposed taxes upon those who refused to accept Islam. It produced two kinds of effects upon Hindu society. Rules and restrictions of Brahmin caste became more rigid on the other hand few thinkers amongst the Hindus, raised their protests against the restrictions of social intercourse, untouchability and other social barriers. Saints like Kabir, Nanak and Taka Ram openly attacked the caste structure. In their attempt to hit back, the Brahmins devised the system of Sati, Purdah and child marriage.
5. Modern Period and Present Changes: The effect of Westernization has weakened the cast system. In fact, this process introduced attack on castism from various angles. Arrival of Britishers brought new directions to this process. The British Government tried to remove some ugly customs by force of law. Thus in the year 1829 Sati Disabilities Removal Act, 1850. Efforts were also made to liberate Shudras from their social sufferings. In 1856, widow marriage were legalized by the Hindu widow Remarriage Act, 1856. To prohibit child marriages, an Act was passed on the year 1860. The Child Marriage Restrain Act, 1860. Inter castes marriages were legalized by the Special Marriage Act, 1872. In the year 1955, the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 was passed by which various marriage restrictions were removed. Now the practice of bigamy by a Hindu is illegal and punishable under Indian Penal Code. In the post-independence period, the constitution has abolished the practice of untouchability and has made its practice an offence punishable under Indian Penal Code. All citizens are equal before law irrespective of caste or creed. Getting strength form modern education and the processes of industrialization, and urbanization, these factors have led to the weakening of the caste system.

Conditions Unfavorable to Caste

The following elements have acted to weaken the caste system in our country:

1. Spread of Education: Modern education has dealt a heavy blow to the caste system. It has shattered the religious myths. ‘A major part in weakening the caste system is placed by the existing education. Modern education is negative as regards religion. It emphasizes democratic values such as liberty, equality and fraternity. Modern education bears the stamp of the scientific and independent thinking in the West. It has laid great stress upon the importance of man. Thus the progress of modern education is demolishing proportionately the ties of caste, etc. education has encouraged inter caste social interactions. The practice of untouchability has been abolished and even made an offence under the Indian Penal Code. Socially, the new generation believes less in the practice of untouchability. 
2. Process of Industrialization: Rapid industrialization has introduced many changes in the erstwhile static society. It has reduced the intensity of caste fervor because persons from all castes sought and obtained employment in factories. A. W. Green believe that, “although the Brahmin has to take a prolonged religious bath in order to purify himself against the defilement caused by the mere shadow of Shudra, yet it is not possible to avoid the shadow of Shudras in the crowded lanes of city and busy offices. As a result of industrialization individuals of all castes came into mutual contact into factories, hotels, markets, trains, trams and buses etc.” This has helped in undermining the intense feeling of casteism in our society.
3. Wealth as Symbol of Prestige: Now caste no more signifies one’s social prestige. Its place has been taken over by wealth. A person adopts an occupation not because of his caste but because it appears more beneficiary to him. ‘The consideration in the choice of a profession is no longer caste but individual capability and the facility in earning wealth. These days, a wealthy Shudra is more respected than a poor Brahmin’.
4. Social Reform Movements: The movements aiming to secure social emancipation have also struck at the vary root of caste system.
5. Means of Communication: Means of communication have introduced rapidity in social interactions and have brought down the fence that had caused isolation of villagers. ‘It became difficult to maintain the rigidity of caste in the whirlwind of communication set into motion by industrialization through such means as buses, trains, trams, cars, etc.
6. Political Factors: There has been continuous agitation by various groups to end discrimination and exploitation. This was the aim of the national agitation for independence. ‘The objective of this national movement was the establishment of a democratic pattern of society in India. For this reason it made efforts to weaken the caste consciousness in the people.’ The political factors, along with other factors have weakened the caste system.
7. New social Classes: Industrialization has led to the appearance of new social classes in the society. ‘These social classes are replacing the caste. The organization of castes was vertical that of classes in horizontal. The feeling of class-consciousness is so strong that it has led to the weakening of caste consciousness or the feelings of casteism.
8. Constitutional Provisions: The constitution of India in Article 15(2) of the constitution of India declared ‘all citizens equal.’ The fortress of the caste system collapsed when foreign rule came to an end. According to the Untouchability Crime Act of 1955 it is a crime to prevent anyone from using a public place. Despite these steps, the caste system has not died away. It is still being aroused by the vested interests particularly out political leaders. In the shadow of political life, the feeling of casteism is sensed as stronger than earlier.

Demerits of Caste System

1. Obstructs Mobility to Labor: It has obstructed mobility of labor since under it the individual must follow the caste occupation and he cannot change it according to his likes or dislikes. This leads to complete immobility of labor.
2. Practice of Untouchability: Caste system has led to the evil practice of untouchability. According to Mahatma Gandhi it is, “the hateful expression of caste.” Large sections of people are reduced to the virtual slavery because of this practice.
3. Solidarity Hampered: Instead of promoting solidarity, caste system has led to the decay of solidarity and brotherhood in the Hindu society by rigidly separating one class from another and denying and type of social intercourse between them.
4. Undermines Merits in Occupation: Under caste system, it often result in putting man in wrong occupation. There is no guarantee that a priest’s son would also like to be a priest or would possess the qualities for a successful priest. The caste system does not permit a person to take up any other profession even though he may possess the skill and liking for that. Thus this system put stumbling blocks in the way of merit.
5. Hamper National Unity: Caste system is an obstacle to the growth of national unity in the country. The lower classes feel discontented at the behavior meted out to them in society. As G.S.Ghurye states, “It is spirit of caste patriotism which engenders opposition to other castes and creates an unhealthy atmosphere for the growth of national consciousness.”
6. Retards Social Progress: Caste system is the greatest obstacle in the way of social progress and economic development of the county. Since the people believe in the theory of Karma, they become conservation and because their economic position is fixed, they are led to inertia killing their initiative and enterprise. It does not take care of one’s ability and potential.
7. Undemocratic: It inculcates the feeling of superiority among the upper caste and thus seeks to undermine the process of democracy because it denies equal rights to all, irrespective of tier caste, creed or color. Social barriers are created in the way of people specially lower class individuals who are not given freedom in their mental and physical development and are not provided with opportunities for that. It is one this account that modern democracies have discouraged that caste division of society. Democracy is not only inconsistent with the caste division of society but is also opposed to it.

What should one say in conclusion of above discussion? Obviously, the conclusive fact is that caste system is more harmful that being beneficial. As James Bryce says, ‘Social structure is an important factor. Where men are divided by language, or by religion, or caste distinctions grouped on race or on occupation, there are grounds for mutual distrust and animosity which make it hard for them to act together or for each section to recognize equal rights in the other. Homogeneity, though it may not avert class wars helps each class of the community to understand the mind of others, and creates a general opinion in nation.”

Conditions Favoring the Caste System

These are being explained below:

1. Geographical Conditions: Geographical isolation has played a significant role in rendering our society static and powerless. In the absence ‘of adequate means of transport leads to the geographical isolation, from other, from people who inhabit distantly situated area and this fosters old customs, mores, traditions and superstition, all of which encourage the caste system.
2. Static Society: Hindu society is not a dynamic society. There has always been absence of a stupendous variation ‘in its political situations and economic conditions. Its social mores, customs and traditions have failed to change over the ages as times have marched along. But this does not mean that Hindu society have failed to change over the ages as times have marched along. But this does not mean that Hindu society has never changed. When we say that it is static or motionless, we wish to indicate ‘the extremely slow rate at which variations and modifications are instituted in it. The static nature of society gave strength to the existence of cast system in our country.
3. Foreign Invasions: Foreign aggression were also responsible for strengthening the continued existence of the caste system in India. It is commonly believed ‘that the caste system began in India when the Aryans invaded the country. They were fair skinned and victorious and natives of India were black. The victorious race considered itself superior to the victimized race and considered it below its dignity to associate itself and marry into letter. In this way, strict laws regarding conduct, diet, marriage, etc. were formulated. Slowly and gradually these became fundamental ingredients of caste system.
4. Rural social Structure: In our country, historically speaking the social structure of the rural sector has remained unchanged. ‘Ancient traditions are better respected in it. As the rural structure weakens, or in other words as urbanization in the country increases, the caste also becomes progressively weaker.
5. Religious Factors: Religion and religious practices have been the predominant factor in the condition of caste system in India. The Hindu caste system is looked upon as a divine institution. People who violate it are considered sinners and it is believed that God will punish them and because of this people lack the will to violate the laws of the caste system.
6. Racial Differences: Multiplicity of races ‘leads to formulation of many strict laws concerning discrimination since each race endeavors to maintain its purity. In the medieval period of Indian history, stringent laws concerning caste were laid down to protect Hindu society from the Muslims. This also strengthened the continuation of caste system in India.
7. Illiteracy: Education inculcates awareness. Mass illiteracy and absence of educational facilities have been one of the major factors favoring the caste system. It has experienced that an uneducated society is static and motionless. Superstitions, traditions and mores breed freely among uneducated people.

Present System of Marriage in India

Hindu marriage system provided by the religious texts, and saints and prevalent in ancient India, has undergone many fundamental changes, under the influence of the western culture and way of life and the compelling needs of the time. Following changes highlight the features of marriage system prevalent today.

A. Marriage is not Compulsory Now

In the ancient Hindu society, marriage for both male and female, except rare exceptions; was compulsory. And for performance of Dharma as well as the “successful preparation for one’s quest for ‘moksha’; the ultimate aim of human life, marriage became necessary. Procreation of a son was necessary to get oneself rid of paternal debt (Patrik Rina). For the performance of yajna presence of wife was essential, and this necessitated marriage to be essential for leading a complete life. Thus, marriage was necessary for the performance of religious rites.

In the present day society, marriage is not considered compulsory for every Hindu. Today, ‘many do not want to enter into matrimony owning to economic reasons. The girls and now no longer ready of bear insults and suppression from males. Many girls do not marry as they do not want to surrender their freedom. Subordination of females has been seen with the contemptuous look by the girls and hated as an act of slavery. Lack of suitable match, also, is a cause of remaining bachelor. Modern age males and females, thus, do not value the ancient religious necessity of compulsory marriage. They cherish individualism, independence and personal attainments.

B. Many Taboos of Marriage are Broken Now

Many taboos governed the Hindu marriage. The ancient Hindu tradition laid restriction on the marriage of two individuals belonging to same Gotra or Prawar. Here the mate selection was limited by the restriction. But now, this restriction is no longer accepted by the present day modern generation. Laws have been passed to remove this restriction. However, certain rules of marriage are still observed without any change.

Exogamy means that husband and wife may not be related to each other before marriage in ways that are prohibited, quite as incest is prohibited. The tabooed relationships are those of kin, position of kin grouping, and in some of the northern regions of locality two people in certain specific in position are forbidden to marry, as for example, a man and his mother’s sister. Prohibited also are the unions within kin groupings, such as between two who are patrilineal descended from the same real or mythical ancestors. In jatis which follow Sanskritic usage, the prohibited kin positions are collectively known as the Sapinda relations and are traced through both father and mother.

C. Child Marriages are Opposed and Declared Illegal

In early times child marriage was a common sight in the Hindu social organization. But now child marriage is opposed legally, socially and on economic considerations. Sarada Act legally put restriction on the marriage of the child. The Hindu Marriage Act specifies the marriageable age for a girl as eighteen years and that of a boy twenty one years. The Hindu Marriages Act 1955 provides for the age limit and also mentions consequences of under age, marriage.

Increase in women education and their struggle against suppression is one of the leading factors opposing child marriages. And again economic consideration like the inability to give dowry at an early stage and career mindedness of the modern youth is opposed to child marriage in the county.

Now child marriage is opposed by each and every section of the people even with low degree of awareness.

D. Inter-caste Marriage

Modern family accept marriages outside caste, whereas in ancient and medieval India inter-caste marriage were considered immoral and a sin against God. But now such marriages, particularly in urban sector is much more common. Inter-caste marriages have been legally permitted. The increasing effects of co-education, idea of equality and democratic rights and liberty, inter-caste marriages fetch a value of being broad-minded and forward in one’s social circles. Thus the practice of endogamy is fading away and inter-caste marriages are becoming more and more common.

E. Polygamy is Prohibited

In the ancient days men married several women to get a son and references of such marriages are often found in the lonely writings. Kings had so many queens in their ‘harem’, but now this practice is legally banned. Increasing in women education has contributed to the discard of polygamy. The Hindu Marriage Act 1955 prohibits the practice of polygamy. No Hindu can marry for second time when her/his first spouse is alive. Section 5(1) declares, “A marriage may be solemnized between any two Hindus, if neither party has a spouse living at the time of marriage”.

Such marriages have been declared void by the Section 11 of the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955. Economic compulsions are also helping in promoting these legal provisions.

F. Widow Remarriage is Permitted

A long battle for the emancipation of widows was fought. Early widows were subjected to the most inhuman cruelty that can be inflicted against a human being called as self-immolation or ‘Sati”. Woman was forced to sit in the burning pyre of her husband. Widows were not permitted to marry again. With the continuous efforts of social reformers and mass movement ‘Sati’ system has been declared illegal and widows have been empowered to marry according to the provisions of Widow Remarriage Act. Now the case of widow remarriages is on the increasing trend and it is no longer considered immoral or wrong to marry a widow.

G. Divorce is Legalized: 

Another very important aspect of marriage i.e. divorce has changed. Now divorce has been permitted by the Hindu Marriage Act 1955. Earlier, it was not possible to get rid of an insane, immoral and cruel husband as the social custom did not permit her to do so. According to Section 13 of the Hindu Marriage Act 1955, “Any marriage solemnized, whether before or after the commencement of the Act, May, on a petition presented by either the husband or the wife, be dissolved by a decree or divorce on the ground provided in the section.

Conclusion: 

Forgoing changes in the system of Hindu Marriages are positive indications of progress towards a better social organization and improved way of life. The legal steps such as the prohibition of child marriages, permission of widow remarriages, and other change including concessions in the matter of one’s male selection are the healthy signs. However much apprehension is attributed to the developments like pre-marriage ‘extramarital relations, raised age-limits for marriages are the signs of disorganization in the Hindu family life. The idea of sacrament behind the bond of marriages and soul-relationship has been reduced merely to the satisfaction of sexual urge. Marriage has become a contract. The spirituality that existed behind the marriage is now braking down. The impact of Western culture, rapid rate of modernization the effect of urbanization and industrialization have brought tremendous changes in the social values. The modern youth rejects, even the valuable values as mere restrictions and useless. This has cost it’s as pensions on the organized way of Hindu life. 

Definition and Features of the Joint Family

The Joint Family

It is not incorrect to say that the whole structure of the Hindu social organization and set up stand on two pillars i.e. of the caste system and the joint family. This fact has been rightly pointed out by K.M. Panikkar; when he says, ‘Though in theory unconnected, these two institutions, the caste and the joint family are in practice interlocked to an extent which makes them in effect a common institution. The unit of Hindu society in not individual but joint family. The widest expression of this family is the ‘sub caste’ which often consists only of a few joint families which inter marry and inter-dine-among themselves.’

Many definitions of joint family have been given but notable among these are being mentioned below:

“A Joint family is a group of people who generally live under one roof, who eat food cooked at one hearth, who held property in common and who participate in common worship are related to each other as some particular type of kindred”—J. Karve

“The joint family consists of males having a common male ancestor, female offspring not yet married, and women brought into the group by marriage. All of these persons might live in common households or in several households near to one another. In any case, so long as the joint family holds together, its member are expected to contribute to the support of the whole and to receive from it a share of the total product” --- Davis

“The Hindu Joint family is a group constituted of known ancestors and adopted sons and relatives related to these sons through marriage”.------Henry Maine

Features of the Joint Family

From the definitions mentioned above following characteristic features of a joint family can be pointed out:

1. Joint Habitation: Joint family resides under one roof that is to say members of the family live in one house where father, sons, son’s wives and their children live together. No separation or particularization of accommodation is unthinkable in the joint families. According to Sir Henry Maine joint Hindu family ‘is a group constituted of known ancestors and adopted sons and relatives to these sons through marriage’. However it must be noted that this feature is not always in all joint families.
2. Common Eating Place: The members of a joint family get food from a common kitchen. The time two separate kitchens are used for preparing meals for some of the members, from that very moment, the family ceases to be a joint family. The food for all old and young, man and woman is cooked in one kitchen. It was commented by Brahaspati, that the people who have a joint kitchen their ancestors, gods and Brahmins are worshipped at the same place. It implies that the existence of a joint family kitchen facilitates the members to perform other activities at a single place. It is opined that as soon as kitchen is separated, the joint family disintegrates.
3. Common Ownership of Property: In addition to common eating place, a common shelter, another striking feature of joint family is joint property. This happens as such that ‘the members of the family jointly undertake production and consumption and are joint owners of the wealth of the family. Because of its joint ownership and presence of co-operation among the members it has been called a co-operative institution. All work together and eat together and no distinction is made between the members on these grounds.
4. Ruled by Karta: The head of the family discharges the function of the trustee and he manages all the affairs of the family in such a way so as to provide material and spiritual benefit to all the members equally. He is called as the Karta of the family. He controls, supervises and looks after the affairs so the family. He receives the total earning of the family as its head and utilizes it in the interests of all the members of the family.
5. Common Origin: Joint family has a common origin and members are kin. According to Sir Henry Maine, “The joint family is a group of springs of some known common percentage or a group that arises out of their marriage.

Thus a joint family refers to the group life of the kin deriving their origin from some common source, living, working and sharing together the fruits of joint endeavor under the rule of their karta.

Demerits of Joint Family System

The joint family system was praised for its many merits out it has also not less been vehemently denounced. The main defects that are pointed out against the system are the following:

1. Home of Idlers: It is asserted that because of its joint share in food and shelter, joint family becomes the home for idlers and domes as the non-earning members do not want to work to earn their livelihood. The lazy become lazier at the expense of other member of the joint family.
2. Encourages Litigation: The joint family system it is pointed out encourages litigation, for at the time of the partition of common property generally disputes crop up which are not settled generally without a recourse being taken to law. In case of agricultural families partition leads to fragmentation of holdings which is harmful from the view point of agricultural progress. Litigation regards the progress of the families who already are not in a sound financial position.
3. More Quarrels: It is the hot bed of quarrels and bickering especially among the female members. There is also the clash of ideas and temperaments on account of which there are constant quarrels between the elder and younger members of the family.
4. No Privacy: In a joint family privacy is denied to the newly-wed couples. They do not find a private place to share their views, because of joint family.
5. Unfavorable for Individual Savings: It is not favorable to an appreciation in accumulation of capital. When one has to share one’s income with large family, it is not possible to save much. One feels discouraged in this circumstance to save.

Thus the joint family system has got both its strong followers and the agricultural families the systems still largely overcome. It is not doubtful that under the economic pressure the system is gradually breaking down. The expediency of time has brought radical modification in this form of family life and this system has given way to modern nuclear families.

Explain the factors responsible for the disintegration of joint family system in India

The institution of joint family is very old. The fact now is that there is a disintegration of this system of familial organization. No single factor can be pointed out as the sole cause of this disintegration. The breakdown of the joint family in India has often been forecast on the grounds that joint families were suited to the old agricultural societies but are dysfunctional under present conditions. Hence a sharp break between the ‘traditional’ joint family and the ‘modern’ nuclear family is supposed to occur. However this view has been challenged by some studies in this area. It is asserted on the basis of these studies that ‘the form of the family is not so closely linked to the type of economic organization.

It is recognized by the most students of the family, in certain terms that there is a general tendency in modern societies toward placing greater importance on the conjugal bond between husband and wife and toward decreasing the demands of the consanguine ties, especially those among siblings, but this is a long term trend rather than a cause for abrupt revision of family relations. Besides the studies conducted by Kapadia (1966) and Singer (1968), A.M.Shah is one of the scholars who has sharply questioned the approach to family studies that assumes ‘an inevitable trend from large and complex to small and simple households. He points out that the normal, cyclical development of an Indian family must be distinguished from basic changes in family organization.

Disintegration of Joint Family

Major factors that have acted as agents of disintegration of joint family system are briefly discussed below:

The following factors are responsible for its disintegration

1. Industrialization: The joint family is most suited to agricultural families as the members did not look for jobs. But in wake of industrialization and the establishment of new factories have motivated the workers from the villages move to the cities and it breaks up the joint family. Industrialization affected the cottage and village industries and workers started searching for jobs in industrial towns.
2. Extension of Communications and Transport: Now the villagers are no more isolated from other areas. Earlier, difficulties of communication and travel in ancient times compelled all the members of the family to live together and carry on the family occupation in agriculture and trade jointly. Today when the means of communication and transportation have been extended, it is no longer necessary for men to stay with the family and carry on the family occupation. Now they go to the city and take up any other occupation or even living in the village adopt some other trade and when they adopt a trade different from the family’s trade, they establish a new home.
3. Decline of Agricultural and Village Industries: The joint family system in India flourished when agriculture and trade in the villages were in a sound position. Today with the establishment of factories the commodities produced by the village craftsmen cannot compete in quality or price with those produced in factories with the result that the village industries suffer a loss and after some time close down. With the closing down of the village industry the workers in villages also are compelled to go to the city to find a job there.
4. Lack of Entertainment and Urban Luster: Besides the decline of agriculture and trade there are other causes as well which induce people to move to the city. These are due to lack of facilities for entertainment and recreation, less opportunities for employment for the educated and inadequate opportunities for the education of children.
5. Impact of the West: Westernization, to some extent, is also responsible for the disintegration. India today has been greatly influenced in the social outlook by Western thought and ideology. Out modern laws relating to marriage and divorce has been enacted on Western patter. The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 and the Hindu Succession Act, 1995 have influence the solidarity of the joint family. As a consequence of the Hindu Marriage Act, the number of divorces is increasing. The Hindu Succession Act has given to the girls the right to share equally in the property of their father. The result is that joint family is disintegrating at a rapid rate. Our education is entirely foreign in outlook and approach. We have begun to look at the family as a partnership and not as a sacrament. Our view especially of the young men and women and family relations have undergone a change. The influence of individualism has made deep in roads in the Indian outlook. The Civil Marriage Act gave a blow to the authority of the family head over its members. The educated young men and women prefer to live a married life separate from the family. All this has contributed to the disintegration of joint family.
6. Changing Role of Women: There has been a change in the role of women in the society. More worked change is becoming apparent in the family roles of women. The women of the household are not so firmly dependent on the men and so segregated from them as they used to be. A wife’s fate is not quite so totally dependent on her husband in that windows are now being allowed to remarry in some of the higher castes to in which widow remarriage used to be absolutely prohibited. It has found that the wives of the educated men usually have some education also and they gain in personal confidence because of their education. Such women do not accept the complete sub-ordination of the young wife as readily as did then uneducated mother and grandmothers. Now women resist oppression and with the growing enlightenment, they are becoming more and more independent. This has contributed towards the emergence of nuclear families.
7. Family Quarrels: In the joint family there is bound to be clashes between the members because of their diverse interests, different incomes. In such a household, the feminine quarrels become a matter of routine affair. Those who are married face several hardships. It becomes difficult in these circumstances to live peacefully in a joint family and the consequence is the disintegration of the joint family system.
8. Over-population, scarcity and Problems of Accommodation: Increase in population has brought an additional pressure upon the agricultural land, leading to unemployment, reduced per capital income, food problem and thus disintegration in the joint family system.

Scarcity of materials required for living has created fissures in the joint living. Problem of accommodation especially in urban areas has been one of the leading causes of the disintegration of joint family system.

In addition to these factors, there have been other causes responsible for the disintegration of the joint family system. Legal provisions giving sweeping powers to the Karta of the joint family caused rapid division in the family property between brothers immediately after the death of their father. Laws providing better deal to the women in the society have also promoted the cause of the nuclear families.

Types of Hindu Marriage Prevalent During the Ancient Times

 The Hindu scriptures mention following eight forms of marriage

1. Brahma Marriage.
2. Prajapatya Marriage.
3. Arsha Marriage.
4. Daiva Marriage.
5. Asura Marriage.
6. Gandharva Marriage.
7. Rakshas Marriage.
8. Pishacha Marriage.

These are being briefly discussed below:

1. Brahma Marriage: This form of marriage was considered as the best. Under it the girl is decorated with clothes and ornaments, and she is offered to a learned and gentle bridegroom. Even now, this form of marriage is most prevalent.
2. Prajapatya Marriage: In this form of marriage, the father offers his daughter to the bridegroom and the couple is blessed with the enjoyment of married bliss and fulfillment of Dharma.
3. Arsha Marriage: This was the most typical form of marriage prevalent earlier. In this form of marriage the girl was offered to a Rishi in exchange of cow or bull and some clothes. These articles did not signify any price but they symbolized the promise of the Rishi to lead a domestic life.
4. Daiva Marriage: In this form of marriage the girl was well adored and decorated. ‘The bride was then offered to the priest (Pandit or Purohit) who conducted a yajna function. The man not conducting the function of a Purohit or Pandit, was not offered the bride. Thus the performance of certain functions was necessary in this form of marriage.
5. Asura Marriage: In this form of marriage the parents of the bride used to accept money in exchange of their daughter. According to this form of marriage Pandu was married to Madri. They money was regarded as the value of sacrifice by the girl’s parents.
6. Gandharva Marriage: The basis of this form of marriage was mutual affection and love of the intending bride and bridegroom and not money or gift. First example of this form of marriage is the marriage of King Dushyanta with Shakuntala. In this form of marriage religious ceremony can be performed after the sexual relationship between the two lovers. In Kama Sutra this form of marriage has been categorized to be of ideal type of marriage. According to Taittariya Samhita, the nomenclature of this form of marriage is after the Gandharvas among whom this type of marriage was prevalent.
7. Rakshasa Marriage: This form of marriage was named because of its degenerated type and it was prevalent in the age when women were considered as the prize of man. The brides were taken forcibly by the invading bridegrooms after killing or wounding her relatives. In other words it was force able abduction of females.
8. Pishacha Marriage: This was the most degenerate type of marriage in which a man entered into sexual relationship when the woman was sleeping, drunk or even unconscious.

None of these forms of widespread today in the same old spirit and form Commenting upon the forms of marriage that exist today.  D.N. Majumdar said, “Hindu society now recognizes only two forms, the Brahma and the Asura, the higher castes preferring the former the backward castes the latter, though here and there among the higher castes the Asura practice has not died out”.

Merits of Joint Family

Joint family system enjoys following merits:

1. Division of Labor: In the joint family the division of labor is maintained. Every member in the family is given work according to his abilities.  Family’s work is managed by all members including the women and children and it creates a good performance on work. 
2. Economy: Joint living enjoys economy of expenditure because as the things are consumed in large quantities and low prices. In this way a large family can be maintained work to participate all.
3. Leisure: The joint family provides a lot of time for all. The female members of the family divide their household work within the female members. They finish their work within little time spending and rest of time is leisure. It promotes the feeling of comfort among the members.
4. Social Insurance: In the joint family, the orphans and incapable find a comfortable asylum. Similarly widows are assured of their proper living in joint family. The old, the sick and the incapacitated can depend on the joint family. This is one of the happiest sides of a joint family system.
5. Promotion of Social Virtues: It raises great social virtues like sacrifices, love, co-operation, selfless service, broad mind among the members of the family. Elders want to check the Younger's behavior. They are prevented the younger to get lost from their path and they help to use self-control. These checks help in building a social moral character.
6. Check on Fragmentation of Holdings: Joint family system ‘puts a check on the fragmentation of holdings and evils inherent therein. Besides this it helps to increase production for family. Because their use a vast land. 
7. Socialistic Organization: According to Henry Maine, “the joint family is like a corporation, the trustee of which is the farther. Everyone in the joint family earns according to his capacity but gets according to his needs”.

Pattern and Characteristics of Rural Family

Rural Family

The family is the most important Institution Constituting rural society. It has been its very foundation. It plays a decisive role in the material and cultural life of the rural aggregate and in molding the psychological characteristics of the rural individual as well as the rural collectivity. There are some thinkers, who believe that family and family impress their stamp on the entire rural structure. Family permeates it from top to bottom. A systematic study of rural family, on its structure, functions, evolution, and interrelations with other institutions of the rural society is vitally necessary for the study of the institution of rural family. Within it is found many types and patterns of family organization which humanity has hitherto evolved.’

Pattern of Rural Family 

Prof. Riverse has brought out four types of institutions which have been designated by the term family, viz., 

1. The clan, 
2. The matrilocal joint family, 
3. The patrilocal joint family and 
4. The individual family. 

The each of these is composed of parents and minor children only.

There is a group of sociologists according to which ‘these four types reveal four main stages of the evolution of the family form corresponding to four stages in the evolution of society. The first type corresponds to the hunting and food gathering stage of social evolution; the second to the phase of hoe agriculture and the beginnings of domestication of animals, the third-a classic type-to the phase of agricultural economy based on the plugh and domestication of anumals, and finally, the fourth type to the modern industrial capitalist phase of human existence. As a result of the growth of market economy in the agrarian area and of the impact of urban socio-economic forces on the rural society, the last type is increasingly becoming predominant today. The Indian rural society facilitates a great laboratory to test this view, since it includes within its fold the relics of the clan as well as matrilocal and patrilocal family types and the recent individual family group also. A systematic study of the structure and functions of these various family types and their correlation with the stages of civilization to which they correspond throws a flood light on the history of Indian humanity.

Family Pattern in the Villages- The Patriarchial Joint Family. In fully developed agrarian societies depending on plough agriculture, including India, patriarchial joint family has been found to be the predominant family form in rural areas. Sociologists studying rural problems have made a close study of the characteristics of this type of family. ‘They have observed the basic structural, psychosocial, and functional features of this type of the rural family which distinguish it sharply from the urban family.’

Characteristics of Rural Family

1. Homogeneity: The rural family enjoys greater degree of homogeneity, stability. These are more integrated and organically functioning than the urban family. The ties binding the members of the former, for instance the husband and the wife, parents and children, are stronger and last longer in comparison to their counterparts in the urban families. This is apparent from the situation prevailing in the villages.
2. Peasant Household: The rural family is generally based on the peasant household. ‘All its members are engaged in the agricultural occupation.’ Work is divided among them on lines of age and sex distinctions. ‘The community house, common land and common economic functions along with the common kinship bond create the peasant household’.
3. Discipline and Interdependence: The rural family enforces greater discipline among its members than the urban family. The role of family becomes wider because ‘there is considerably less state or public provision for meeting the educational, cultural, or social needs of the people in the rural area than in the urban, the rural family attempts also to satisfy these needs of its members.’ Thus a family serves as a school, a recreation center, a maternity or a non-maternity home. It looks after the problems of its member in every aspect of life.
4. Dominance of Family Ego: In contrast to the urban family ‘the interdependence of the member of the rural family and the dependence of its individual member of it are, far greater. This joints its members into a homogeneous, compact, egoistic unit, and further strengthens emotions of solidarity and cooperation among them and inculcates in them the family pride”.
5. Authority of the Father: The rural family is far more integrated and disciplined unit than the urban family because the head of the rural family exercises almost absolute power over its members. It is he who distributes the work of the peasant household among the family members on lines of sex and age differences; arranges marriages of sons, daughters, nephews and nieces; administers the joint family property according to his wisdom; and trains the youngsters for future agricultural work and social life. He is the source of all the initiatives and authority. In fact ‘the head of the family has had the rights and authority to be the ruler, the priest, the teacher, the educator and the manager of the family.
6. Closer Participation in Various Activities: The members of a rural family being engaged in work connected with the peasant household spend practically the whole day together. Whereas the members of the urban family engaged in different occupations or being educated outside home, spend only a small portion of the day together. Even their recreational centers such as clubs and others lie outside the home. Hence the home becomes only a temporary nightshade for the members of the urban family. This is one of the reasons of disorganization.

Difference between the Indian Rural community and the Western rural Community

The villages of the East and the west are the reflections of their respective cultural richness and depth. Besides the fact that the rural communities of the East and West agrarian, there are marked difference between them.

Considerable differences in the life of Indian villages and the Western village are found. The geographic factor, is the most important factor in determining the nature and structure of the villages, the nature and structure of villages. A comparative study of the village life in Indian and the West, will bring the elements of differences between the two. This type of study will also reveal the elements, conditions or factors affecting the Rural Dynamics.

The study of Oscar Lewis In his famous book, Village Life in Northern India, he produced a comparative study of an Indian village Ramkhera, near Delhi, with a Mexican village of Tepoztlan.

Lewis found that the differences are more vital than similarities between the two villages. A review of Lewis’s findings makes abundantly clear the differences that exist between Indian and Western villages.

1. Village of Tepoztlan: Tepoztlan is situated 60 miles south of Mexico city, the capital of Maxico inhibited by a population of 3500. This village was established about 2000 years ago. People of Tepoztlan are catholic Christians.
2. Village of Ramkhera: Village Ramkhera is 15 miles from Delhi and has a population of 1100. The people of this village are mostly Hindus.
3. The comparative study: The villagers of Ramkhera speak Hindi, but Tepoztlan speak two languages. A Jat King had conquered Ramkhera, about 750 years ago and since then it is a Jat dominated village.

A. Similarities 

1. Both Ramkhera and Tepoztlan are present societies as majority of the people of both villages are agriculturists.
2. Both villages are connected with the state through the district and are governed by the laws of the land.
3. Both villages have civilized societies.
4. Both the villages are connected and influences by the neighboring villages.
5. In both the villages, traditional agricultural implement are used.
6. Since, both villages are agriculturists so they live off farm produce and dairy products.
7. Both villages have high rates of illiteracy and infant mortality and low standard of living.
8. In both the villages the goods are frequently exchanged and medium of exchanged in the currency.
9. In both villages, there exists a mixed feeling of well and all disposition towards the government. Because both villages have suffered a long spell of foreign domination and rule. 

B. Differences 

1. Structural Differences: Ramkhera is not built according to a plan. Tepoztlan, on the other hand is built to a plan. It has orderly layout and its streets cross each other at right angles and are broad and well laid. The village has one central church, its own market, official building and a public park. While Ramkhera housing is disorderly. The streets are narrow and many of them are blind alleys. The houses in the Indian village are ‘hurdled together’ and have poor ventilation. The houses in Ramkhera are not spacious so there is not enough space to live in. But, the houses in Tepoztlan are well ventilated spacious. In Ramkhera, man and animals usually sleep under the same roof, but in Tepoztlan, there is a small garden in front of each house where cattle are kept. There is no housing problem in Tepoztlan, as it is in Ramkhera. Like all villages in West, the quarters for male and female are not separate in Tepoztlan but mixed, whereas in Ramkhera these are separate. 
2. Difference in the Methods of Agriculture: As stated befor, agriculture is the main profession in the two villages. However, agriculture is more intensive in Ramkhera than in Tepoztlan, where about 90% of area is used for agriculture. On the other hand, only 15% of the area of Tepoztlan is employed for agriculture. In Ramkhera more than one crop is taken per year, in Tepoztlan only one crop is sown in a year, due to poor irrigation facilities. It is difficult to generalize the difference in the irrigation facilities. However, in general the irrigation facilities in West are, on the whole, far better than in India; Tepoztlan is an exception to this general characteristic.
3. Land Differentials: the topographical variations between Tepoztlan and Ramkhera are good representative to the difference between Western and Eastern villages pertaining to land. Nearby Tepoztlan there exist green pastures and forests, but there is no green pasture or any jungle near Ramkhera, this reflects the problem of the shortage of fire wood and explains the reason for cow dung being used for fuel purposes instead of manure.
4. Ownership of Land: In both the villages we find both kinds of land private as well as public. But contrary to Ramkhera in Tepoztlan every individual has equal right over the public land one is free to use it. Whereas in Ramkhera, certain castes are prohibited from the use of public land. While around 80% of the total land in Tepoztlan in public only 7% of the land in Ramkhera is public. Because of these factors, about80% of Indian population is engaged in agriculture in comparison to only 15% of the Western population. That is why each agriculturist in the West has large holdings. In both the villages, there are disputes over public land.
5. Professional Differences: About 90% of Tepoztlan families are occupied in agriculture, whereas in Ramkhera it is 53%. In Ramkhera there are washer man, barbers, potters etc. like any other Indian village. The number of landless laborers is higher in Indian in comparison to West. 
6. Animal Husbandry: In West cattle breeding is for the purposes of food, whereas in Indian, on account of religious beliefs, animals are not bred for feeding. In fact meat is consumed in Indian but lesser than the West. In India, the number of livestock is relatively very high but their condition is very poor in comparison to the western villages.
7. Social Structure: There are striking differences between the Western and the Indian cultures. For instance in Indian villages, blood relationship has a very crucial role. A number of families in a village are closely linked by blood relationship. Whereas, western social structure is based on class structure. Indian village society is based on caste structure which is determined by birth, but in western village no social class stratification is found. There exist less economic and social differences among various classes in the Western villages. The evil of untouchability is peculiar in rural Indian and it does not exist in West.
8. Social Stratification: There is no caste system in western villages, and the relationship among villagers is cordial with a high sense of community feeling but the relations among individuals are becoming more and more impersonal. On the other hand in spite of castism the relations among villagers in Indian are still personal and intimate. But the Western society is not wholly class, where classes are formed on regional, religious and cultural bases, but the peculiar feature of castism like restrictions of marriage, sharing of food and mixing up on festivals etc. are absent in the Western Society.
9. Familial Differences: In West we find small family units and nearly no joint family system in West. On the other hand, joint families in Indian are common where a family not only consists of husband and wife but includes parents and brothers of the husband and sometimes includes uncles and aunts.

Besides above noted similarities and differences, there exist the differences between Indian rural structure and the Western structure. Some of the notable fields of difference are given below: 

• Differences in the communal feeling and organization of villages.
• Differences in political conditions and village leadership.
• Differences in the inter-village relations.
• Differences in social dynamics.

Types of Sanskaras

The concept of Sanskaras is yet another unique contribution of Indian philosophy to mankind. It enjoys a dominant place in the Hindu Though. Manu maintained that Sanskaras purify the body. In its literal sense, ‘Sanskara’ means to purify, which starts from Garbhadhana and ends with the last Sanskara i.e. Antheshti.

A Sanskara begins with a havan or yajna in the prescribed manner. There is a divergence of opinion as far as the number of Sanskaras is connected. For example, Gautam Dharma Sutra prescribed 48 Sanskara while some other Sutra outlined only 10 Sanskara. Briefly discussed below, are the eight main Sanskaras.

1. Garbhadhana Sanskara: The Sanskara of human life begins from Garbhadhana. After marriage, the married couple promises before the sacred fire to lead a love-showered life and offer prayers to Lord Vishnu, Sinivali, Ashwinan Agni, and Indra to bless them with the most innocent but powerful children so that they might be able to follow the Dharma. The couple also makes sacrifices to the fire. Thus the Garbhadhana Sanskara is performed with this pure sacred feeling. This all is done for the child that is going to appear in the womb of the woman (mother).
2. Punsavana Sankara: This Sanskara occurs when the wife’s pregnancy reaches its third month. The object of this Sanskara is to get a powerful son as well as the safety and health of the embryo. The prayer is addressed to God to protect the pregnancy. The woman is told to desire a powerful son.
3. Jatakarma Sanskara: This Sanskara is done to create the proper atmosphere suited to the versatile development of the child when he is born and also to reckon parents of their responsibility towards the character building to the child. The Sanskara is performed with the child is born. The father touches the child and whispers some mantras into his ears wishing him to be an intelligent and long life. After it, with a pen of gold, OM is inscribed on the child’s tongue. In essence object of this Sanskara is to remind the parents of their duty towards their child.
4. Namakarna Sanskara: The Namakarna Sanskara is performed when the child becomes ten or twelve days. The child is given his name. On this, Manu feels that the Namakarna should be according to the Varna and ideals.
5. Upanayama: At the beginning of the eighth year of a child’s life, Upanayana Sanskara is performed. The child remains with the ‘Guru’ for undergoing study. The aim of Upanayana Sanskara is to establish a close relationship between the child and teacher to the maximum possible extent. The child is awarded a sacred thread to wear around his neck and taught the principles of Brahamc haya.
6. Samavaratana Sanskara: After finishing his studies and observing all the rules of Brahmacharya, the child, now a Youngman returns to the family told and undergoes the rituals of the Samavaratana Sanskara. At this stage, he is shared for the first time in his life and is permitted to lead a normal domestic life together with other members of his family.
7. Vivaha Sanskara: Vivaha Sanskara signifies man’s entrance in the Grashtha Ashrama. This is the vital stage of socialization for a man and at this stage, he avows to engage in reproduction as his contribution to the furtherance of his race. There occurs a chain of rituals during the performance of Vivaha Sanskara which highlights the importance of wed-lock. This Ashrama continues till he attains his fiftieth year and after that, at 75 years of age he undergoes Vanaprastha Ashrama under the fourfold ashrama system, and the last days of his life are spent in the Sanyasa Ashrama till he breaths his last.
8. Antyeshti Sanskara: When a person dies, the last Sanskara i.e. Antyeshti Sanskara is performed. Tradition is followed and the dead body is burnt on the wooden pyre. Mantras are chanted and ghee beside holy water is sprinkled on the pyre. The eldest son or the eldest male heir of the deceased performs the last rites.

Cultural Significance of Festivals

Festivals hold a vital place in the life of rural people. They spread color in their life and keep them alive to their traditions, festivals remain the people of their high traditions and values.

1. Religious Importance: Festivals have religious importance and they are closely related to religious practices. Different Gods and Goddesses and worshiped on the occasion of different festivals.
2. Social Importance: Festivals provide occasions on which people belonging to different castes meet together and exchange their views. In this way, festivals contribute to social harmony and progress. All the differences are settled when the people exchange sweets and embrace each other.
3. Recreational Importance: Festivals provide a series of recreation to the villages, various cultural activities like dance, drama, music, wrestling, etc., and are organized at several festivals. Dramatic societies provide enough programs on the occasion of Dushehra and other festivals.
4. Artistic Importance: Grandeur is an inseparable part of the village festivals. Many kinds of decoration are done on the occasion of Janam Ashtmi and other festivals. Temples become a place of artistic importance.

Thus festivals provide natural enjoyment of religious events that are celebrated on the occasion of so many festivals are an integral part of rural life and the condition of village life without festivals is beyond imagination. Festivals bring social unity as well as a boon to the poor people who get rewards from the rich for such festive occasions.